A META-ANALYSIS INVESTIGATING THE EFFECTIVENESS OF CRAMMING AND ALTERNATIVE LEARNING STRATEGIES ON WASSCE PERFORMANCE AND LONG-TERM RETENTION OF SCIENTIFIC CONCEPTS AMONG SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS IN GHANA

Abstract

This meta-analysis investigates the effectiveness of cramming and alternative learning strategies on WASSCE performance and long-term retention of scientific concepts among senior high school students in Ghana. Drawing from a widespread review of studies published between 2000 and 2024 in Ghana, the analysis evaluates the impact of cramming on short-term exam performance in subjects such as biology, chemistry, and physics, while examining its limitations in fostering deeper conceptual understanding and long-term retention. The findings reveal that cramming can lead to moderate improvements in WASSCE scores, particularly in fact-based subjects, but is associated with poor long-term retention and shallow learning, particularly in application-heavy subjects like physics.

In contrast, alternative learning strategies such as spaced repetition, active learning, retrieval practice, and concept mapping reveal significantly higher effectiveness in both short-term and long-term academic outcomes. These strategies promote critical thinking, problem-solving, and conceptual mastery, equipping students for success beyond WASSCE and in future scientific endeavors. The analysis concludes that while cramming may offer short-term benefits, its reliance undermines students' ability to retain knowledge and apply scientific concepts effectively. Educational stakeholders should prioritize evidence-based learning methods that enhance both exam performance and long-term academic growth.

1. Introduction:

1.1Background

Cramming is a common strategy among Ghanaian students, especially as they prepare for the WASSCE, a high-stakes examination that decides access to tertiary education level. Success in WASSCE is important for students aiming to further their education in science and related fields. The pressure to perform well often leads students to adopt cramming as a strategy for short-term solution, especially in science subjects such as biology, chemistry, and physics. However, the long-term effectiveness of cramming, particularly in terms of mastering scientific concepts, remains questionable.

A study conducted by Adusei, 2019, suggest that cramming has a prominent impact on WASSCE performance in science subjects (biology, chemistry, physics) among senior high school students in Ghana, primarily producing short-term benefits. The strategy is often developed by students in the weeks or even days towards the examination, enabling them to retrieve large amounts of accurate information rapidly within a short period of time. In the context of Ghana, where the WASSCE is a high-stakes examination deciding whether students' may get access to tertiary education, cramming is a common practice. Studies on WASSCE performance in Ghana have revealed that many students rely on cramming due to the pressure to perform well.

Cramming can improve immediate WASSCE performance by helping students' ability to retrieve facts and solve critical problems within a short period of time. For subjects such physics, biology and chemistry, which require a large amount of evidence to support information, students often benefit from cramming in terms of short-term test scores or grades. A study by Asare and Nti, (2014) revealed that cramming led to a temporary improvement in WASSCE science scores, particularly in biology, where memorization of processes and terms are important.

Having in – depth to the Ghanaian education system, cramming allows students to focus on important areas of the WASSCE syllabus that are likely to appear on the exam. According to Antwi and Amoah (2015), many students prioritize topics that are likely to appear on the WASSCE, often leading to short-term gains in examination performance. This focused cramming often helps students perform well on the factual recall areas of biology and chemistry.

However, irrespective of the short-term gains, the long-term effectiveness of cramming is somehow limited. For subjects such as physics, which involve problem-solving and conceptual understanding, cramming is less effective. Nyavor and Boakye, (2016) found that students who relied on cramming for WASSCE physics underperformed in follow-up assessments that required deeper understanding and application of concepts. In the months following WASSCE, many students who crammed for the exam were unable to retain or apply scientific concepts in practical situations, indicates about their readiness for tertiary education.

1.2 Purpose of the Meta-Analysis

The primary aim of this meta-analysis is to assess the effectiveness of cramming as a study strategy in relation to WASSCE performance in Ghana, how does it impact WASSCE performance in science subjects (biology, chemistry, physics) among senior high school students in Ghana, the effect of it on long-term retention and understanding of scientific concepts post-WASSCE, how it affect student well-being and stress levels during WASSCE preparation, learning strategies effective than cramming for improving both WASSCE performance and long-term mastery of science. The analysis seeks to explore the short-term benefits of cramming in helping students achieve better scores or grades in WASSCE science subjects, while also considering its long-term consequences on retention, understanding, and readiness for higher education.

2.0 Review of related literature

2.1. Student Well-Being during WASSCE Preparation

The high-stakes nature of the WASSCE, which defines students' access to higher education and future career opportunities in tertiary education, places a huge pressure on students in Ghana. This pressure is particularly acute in science subjects such as biology, chemistry, and physics, where students often feel the need to memorize large amounts of information within a short period of time. The expectation of the exams frequently leads to heightened stress levels, compelling many students to resort to cramming as a last-minute strategy. According to Adusei (2019), cramming is a widely adopted method because it offers a quick solution to the perceived need to cover large volumes of material in a short time. However, this approach intensifies stress and can lead to negative consequences for student well-being.

Owusu and Mensah (2020) found that students who crammed for WASSCE experienced significantly higher levels of anxiety compared to their peers who engaged in consistent study routines throughout the academic year. The stress from cramming often reveals in physical symptoms such as increased heart rate, headaches, and difficulty concentrating, all of which can negatively affect exam performance. The same study also indicates the issue of sleep deprivation, with many students reporting that they frequently stayed up late in the days leading up to the exam. Amoako and Amponsah (2018) corroborated this, noting that sleep deprivation can impair cognitive function, memory consolidation, and decision-making abilities, all of which are essential for tackling science exams.

Moreover, the tension associated with cramming leaves students emotionally and physically drained by the time they are writing their WASSCE exams. A tension, characterized by feelings of exhaustion, objectivity, and decreased motivation, not only affect exam performance but also has long-term effects for students’ academic courses. Adomako and Asante (2017) found that students who crammed were more likely to experience emotional breakdowns during or after the exams, as the accumulated stress took affects their mental health. Tension also undermines students' confidence and resilience, critical traits for success in higher education.

The psychological impact of cramming extends beyond the immediate exam period. Studies have shown that chronic stress and anxiety from cramming can contribute to long-term mental health issues, such as depression, feelings of inadequacy, and low self-esteem (Owusu & Mensah, 2020; Tandoh & Osei, 2016). This is particularly challenging for science students, who often face more demanding and conceptually challenging courses at the tertiary level. Many students report feeling underprepared for university-level science courses, as cramming fosters rote memorization rather than deep conceptual understanding (Boakye & Nyavor, 2016). This misalignment between WASSCE preparation and the skills required for higher education may contribute to higher dropout rates and academic struggles in science programs.

The results of cramming-induced stress are not only personal but also have broader implications for Ghana's education system. According to Antwi and Amoah (2015), the prevalence of cramming and its associated negative outcomes could impact the overall quality of science education in Ghana. Students who perform well on WASSCE through cramming may still lack the critical thinking and problem-solving skills necessary for success in more advanced scientific studies. As a result, the reliance on cramming can weaken the foundation of the country's future scientific workforce.

2. 2. Coping Strategies and Educational Interventions to reduce cramming at the senior high school level

Identifying the negative impact of cramming on student well-being and long-term learning, educators and policymakers in Ghana should promote healthier study habits and coping mechanisms among WASSCE candidates. Osei and Boateng (2019) argue that providing students with stress management resources and training on time management and effective study techniques can help reduce the reliance on cramming. Schools can introduce wellness programs that include workshops on time management, stress reduction techniques, and the importance of sleep, ensuring students are well equipped to handle the demands of the WASSCE without conceding their mental and physical health. Teachers also play an important role in reducing the need for cramming by adopting continuous assessment and spaced learning strategies. Studies have shown that spaced repetition, where students review material consistently over time, enhances long-term retention and reduces exam anxiety (Adusei, 2019; Nyavor & Boakye, 2016). By encouraging students to engage with material regularly, teachers can help build deeper conceptual understanding, particularly in science subjects where application of knowledge is important.

Furthermore, integrating mental health support into the school system can help students manage the stress associated with WASSCE preparation more effectively. Owusu and Mensah (2020) recommend school-based counseling services, peer support groups, and techniques like mindfulness or relaxation exercises, which have been shown to mitigate anxiety and improve focus. Providing these resources would equip students with the emotional resilience needed to balance their academic goals with their personal well-being.

2.3. Effect of cramming on long-term retention and understanding of scientific concepts after WASSCE

The effect of cramming on long-term retention and understanding of scientific concepts after WASSCE is generally negative, as it fosters surface-level learning rather than deep conceptual understanding. Cramming, which focuses on short-term memorization of facts and formulas, may help students perform well on exams like the WASSCE in the immediate term, but its benefits rarely extend beyond the exam period. Research indicates several important issues associated with cramming and its negative effects on long-term retention and conceptual mastery.

Cramming encourages rote memorization, which is effective for remembering facts in a short period but does not promote deeper understanding of scientific concepts. Nyavor and Boakye (2016) found that students who crammed for their WASSCE exams performed well on questions requiring factual recall but struggled with questions that required application, analysis, and synthesis of knowledge. This suggests that cramming prioritizes surface-level learning at the expense of critical thinking and problem-solving skills, which are essential in science education.

One of the main disadvantages of cramming is its incapability to counter the forgetting curve, a phenomenon where knowledge rapidly declines if not regularly reinforced. According to Adusei (2019), students who crammed for their WASSCE exams revealed a significant decline in retention of scientific knowledge within weeks after the exam. This is because cramming overloads the brain with information in a compressed time frame, leading to quick forgetting after the immediate exam is over. In contrast, spaced learning and consistent study habits have been shown to produce stronger long-term retention, particularly in subjects such as biology and physics that require cumulative understanding.

Cramming for science subjects such as chemistry, physics, and biology often leads to poor conceptual understanding. Asare and Nti (2014) noted that students who relied heavily on cramming were less able to explain scientific concepts in depth or apply their knowledge to real-world situations after the WASSCE. For instance, while students might successfully memorize chemical reactions or biological processes for the exam, they often fail to understand the underlying principles governing these reactions. This lack of conceptual understanding is particularly problematic for students pursuing tertiary education in science-related fields, where deeper understanding is importance for success.

The gap in long-term retention and understanding of scientific concepts created by cramming has important implications for students as they move to higher education. Owusu and Mensah (2020) observed that students who crammed for the WASSCE struggled in their first year of university, particularly in courses that required a foundational understanding of scientific theories and concepts. These students often had to relearn material they had largely covered during cramming sessions, which placed them at a disadvantage compared to peers who had developed a deeper understanding through consistent study.

Cramming's focus on memorization rather than understanding also affects students' ability to relate knowledge in new contexts. Scientific understanding, particularly in subjects such as physics and chemistry, relies on the ability to transfer learned concepts to solve problems in unfamiliar situations. Tandoh and Osei (2016) reported that students who crammed for exams found it difficult to adapt to problem-solving tasks in later academic work, particularly in areas requiring experimentation, analysis, and breakdown of data. This limitation obstructs their ability to engage in practical and applied science, which is important in both academic and professional scientific fields.

The negative effects of cramming extend beyond senior high school, with many students experiencing long-term academic underperformance as a result of their reliance on this learning strategy. Boakye and Nyavor (2016) found that students who crammed for WASSCE consistently underperformed in university-level science courses that required cumulative knowledge and higher-order thinking skills. This underperformance is connected to the superficial learning strategies adopted during cramming, which do not prepare students with the tools needed to succeed in more advanced scientific study.

2.4. Impact of cramming on WASSCE performance in science subjects (biology, chemistry, physics) among senior high school students in Ghana

The immediate impact of cramming on WASSCE performance in science subjects (biology, chemistry, and physics) can be momentous, particularly in areas that require factual recall.

Cramming is associated with an improvement in short-term performance. Students who cram often perform better on exams requiring rote memorization of factual knowledge, especially in biology, where understanding specific terms, processes, and structures is important. According to Adusei (2019), cramming helped students achieve higher scores in fact-based sections of the WASSCE, as they could quickly recall information learned in the short term. Cramming enables students to focus on critical topics that are likely to appear on the WASSCE, based on past question trends or teacher predictions. This focused learning helps students concentrate on important areas of the syllabus, leading to improved performance in certain sections. Antwi and Amoah (2015) noted that students who focused their cramming efforts on frequently tested concepts in chemistry and biology experienced short-term gains in WASSCE scores. In subjects such as biology and chemistry, where certain portions of the syllabus rely on factual knowledge, cramming can be effective. However, the success in these subjects is often limited to lower-order cognitive tasks, such as recall and recognition, as contrasting to higher-order tasks such as problem-solving or applying concepts in physics (Owusu & Mensah, 2020). In subjects like physics, cramming tends to be less effective as compared with biology and chemistry. Physics problems often require a deeper understanding of concepts and the capacity to apply knowledge to solve problems. Nyavor and Boakye (2016) found that students who crammed for physics do not performed well in sections requiring problem-solving and critical thinking, as these skills are not appropriate through cramming. While cramming can temporarily improve exam performance, it is also associated with intensified levels of stress and anxiety. This can negatively affects students' ability to focus during the exam and may result in mental fatigue, especially when dealing with complex problems in chemistry and physics (Owusu & Mensah, 2020).

2.5. Effect of cramming on long-term retention and understanding of scientific concepts after WASSCE

While cramming may help students obtain higher short-term scores or grades on the WASSCE, its long-term effects on retention and understanding of scientific concepts are generally negative. Research indicates that cramming often leads to shallow learning and poor retention, which can considerably hinder students' academic progress in higher education and beyond. Cramming encourages surface-level learning, where students focus on memorizing facts and formulas without fully understanding the underlying principles. Nyavor and Boakye (2016) found that students who crammed for WASSCE exams performed well on fact-based questions but struggled with more conceptual or application-based tasks in the long run. This shallow learning does not foster deep understanding, which is important for success in university-level science courses. The forgetting curve suggests that information learned through cramming is likely to be forgotten soon after the exam. Adusei (2019) found that students who crammed for WASSCE quickly forgot the scientific concepts they had memorized within a few weeks of the exam. This is because cramming feed the brain with information in a short period, making it difficult for students to retain the material long-term. Asare and Nti (2014) noted that students who crammed for biology were able to recall terms and processes but struggled to explain the underlying mechanisms behind those processes. This lack of conceptual understanding becomes a momentous hindrance in higher education, where a strong foundation in scientific principles is indispensable for success in fields such as medicine, engineering, and applied sciences. The reliance on cramming for WASSCE preparation can leave students ill-prepared for the more rigorous demands of university-level science courses. Owusu and Mensah (2020) observed that many students who crammed for WASSCE struggled in their first year of university, particularly in courses that required critical thinking and problem-solving skills. These students often had to reinforce basic concepts that they had superficially learned during their cramming sessions. Cramming's emphasis on memorization rather than understanding, limits students' ability to apply their knowledge in new contexts. For instance, students may be able to retrieve a physics formula during an exam but might not be able to know how to use it to solve real-world problems. Tandoh and Osei (2016) found that students who crammed for exams had difficulty adapting to problem-solving tasks in higher education, predominantly in laboratory-based courses that required practical application of scientific concepts.

The negative effects of cramming on long-term retention and understanding often result in academic low – performance in the university level. Boakye and Nyavor (2016) found that students who crammed for WASSCE in physics and chemistry were more likely to struggle with coursework at the tertiary level, especially in subjects that require collective knowledge and advanced problem-solving skills.

2.6. Learning strategies that can be more effective than cramming for improving both WASSCE performance and long-term mastery of science concepts

Numerous learning strategies are more effective than cramming for improving both WASSCE performance and long-term mastery of science subjects such as biology, chemistry, and physics. These strategies focus on developing in – depth understanding, critical thinking, and retention of scientific concepts. The following are some evidence-based strategies that can significantly enhance students' learning outcomes compared to cramming

2.6.1 Spaced Repetition (Distributed Practice)

Spaced repetition involves spreading study sessions over longer periods, rather than attempting to learn everything at once, as is common in cramming. Research indicates that spaced repetition strengthens long-term retention by allowing the brain to merge information more effectively. Adusei (2019) found that students who adopted spaced repetition in their study routines performed better in both short-term exams like the WASSCE and long-term retention of scientific concepts. By reviewing material at regular intervals, students are better able to reinforce their understanding and retrieve fundamental concepts during exams. Antwi and Amoah (2015) noted that, students who used spaced repetition for WASSCE preparation, particularly in subjects such as physics and chemistry, were better able to apply their knowledge to problem-solving tasks, which are fundamental for science education.

2.6.2. Active Learning

Active learning engages students in activities that promote critical thinking and problem-solving. Techniques such as self-testing, group discussions, and problem-based learning encourage deeper understanding of scientific concepts, rather than just memorization. Nyavor and Boakye (2016) found that students who engaged in active learning techniques, such as solving physics problems in groups or explaining scientific concepts to peers, were more successful in retaining and applying knowledge over time. Asare and Nti (2014) also reported that students who regularly practiced self-testing and problem-solving exercises in biology performed better than their peers who relied solely on cramming for WASSCE preparation. Active learning not only improves exam scores but also equips students with the skills needed to solve complex scientific questions in future academic work.

2.6.3 Concept Mapping

Concept mapping is a strategy where students visually organize information in diagrams that show the relationships between concepts. This technique helps students to develop a deeper understanding of how scientific concepts are interrelated. Boakye and Nyavor (2016) found that concept mapping helped students in chemistry and biology create a more organized mental framework of complex ideas, leading to better performance in both the WASSCE and long-term academic tasks. Owusu and Mensah (2020) also observed that students who used concept maps to study for WASSCE had a stronger grasp of interrelated topics in biology, allowing them to answer more challenging application-based questions.

2.6.4 Retrieval Practice

Retrieval practice, also known as the testing effect, involves actively remembering information from memory rather than passively reviewing notes. Studies have indicated that retrieval practice is highly effective for strengthening memory and improving understanding. Adusei (2019) indicates that students who used retrieval practice, such as frequent quizzes and practice exams, show superior performance in WASSCE and retained information more effectively compared to students who crammed. This strategy puts pressure on students to actively engage with the material, which helps in better long-term recall. Tandoh and Osei (2016) found that students who frequently practiced recalling formulas, definitions, and processes in subjects such as physics and chemistry were able to apply these concepts more effectively during the exam and in real-world problem-solving scenarios.

2.6.5 Metacognitive Strategies

Metacognition refers to thinking about one’s own learning process. By using metacognitive strategies, students can plan, monitor, and evaluate their own learning, which helps them identify areas where they need to improve. Owusu and Mensah (2020) suggest that teaching students to reflect on their learning, set goals, and adjust their study methods can lead to more effective exam preparation and long-term mastery of scientific concepts. For example, students who used self-assessment tools to evaluate their understanding of biology concepts before exams performed better than those who only focused on cramming. Amoako and Amponsah (2018) found that students who were trained in metacognitive strategies developed a better ability to manage their time and focus on weaker areas, which led to improved performance in both immediate assessments and long-term retention.

2.6.6 Interleaved Practice

Interleaving involves mixing different topics or types of problems within a single study session, rather than focusing on just one subject at a time. This strategy improves the ability to transfer knowledge and apply concepts across different areas. Nyavor and Boakye (2016) observed that students who used interleaved practice while preparing for WASSCE were better able to connect concepts across subjects, such as integrating chemistry and biology principles, leading to higher scores or grades in both exams. Adusei (2019) also found that students who alternated between studying physics problems and chemistry equations in a single session performed better on questions that required cross-disciplinary thinking, a critical skill for science education.

2.6.7 Project-Based Learning (PBL)

Project-based learning (PBL) is a teaching method where students learn by engaging in real-world and meaningful projects. It emphasizes hands-on experience and the practical application of scientific concepts. Boakye and Nyavor (2016) reported that students who engaged in project-based learning in subjects such as chemistry and physics show a deeper understanding of scientific principles and were better able to apply this knowledge in practical settings, both during WASSCE and in subsequent academic endeavors. Asare and Nti (2014) noted that students who participated in science experiments and projects that connected classroom theory with real-world applications performed better in long-term retention and problem-solving, critical for success beyond WASSCE.

2.6.8 Scaffold Instruction

Scaffold instruction involves providing support to students as they are learning new concepts, and gradually reducing this support as they become more independent learners. This method is effective in building long-term understanding since it allows students to progress through increasingly challenging tasks with guidance. Owusu and Mensah (2020) found that students who received scaffold instruction in physics, particularly in difficult topics such as electromagnetism and mechanics, were able to achieve a deeper understanding and performed better in problem-solving tasks both during and after WASSCE. Antwi and Amoah (2015) emphasize that scaffold instruction not only helps students understand difficult concepts more effectively but also encourages independent learning, which is important for long-term academic success.

3.0 Method for the Meta-Analysis

To effectively synthesize and evaluate the available research on learning strategies and cramming in relation to WASSCE performance and long-term mastery of scientific concepts, the following methodological steps were used.

3.1. Research Questions

The meta-analysis was focused on answering the following research questions

1. How does cramming impact WASSCE performance in science subjects such as biology, chemistry, and physics among senior high school students in Ghana?

2. What is the effect of cramming on long-term retention and understanding of scientific concepts after WASSCE?

3. How does cramming affect student well-being and stress levels during WASSCE preparation?

4. What learning strategies can be more effective than cramming for improving both WASSCE performance and long-term mastery of science concepts?

3.2. Eligibility Criteria

The inclusion and exclusion criteria for studies were based on the following factors

3.2.1 Inclusion Criteria

Studies examined the effect of cramming and/or alternative learning strategies on academic performance, specifically in science subjects such as biology, chemistry, and physics among high school students preparing for high-stakes exams like WASSCE. Studies were focused on senior high school students in Ghana. Studies that report outcomes related to WASSCE performance, long-term retention, or understanding of scientific concepts. Peer-reviewed journal articles, conference papers, theses, and grey literature that meet the research questions were employed. Randomized controlled trials, quasi-experimental designs, longitudinal studies, and observational studies was included to ensure a broad perspective on cramming and learning strategies. However, Studies that was published between 2000 and 2024 to capture the recent trends in learning strategies and WASSCE performance in Ghana were employed.

3.2.2 Exclusion Criteria

Studies that focus on subjects outside the sciences (biology, chemistry and physics were excluded. Studies without clear outcome measures related to academic performance or retention were excluded. Studies that were not published in English were excluded.

3.3. Search Strategy

Comprehensive search strategies were employed to locate important studies. The following steps were used.

3.3.1. Databases

Databases were include; Google Scholar, ERIC (Education Resources Information Center), JSTOR, Science Direct, and ProQuest

3.2. Search Keywords

Search terms were designed to capture a range of studies on cramming, learning strategies, WASSCE, and science education. Examples include; Cramming and WASSCE performance, Learning strategies for science education in senior high school, Effect of cramming on long-term retention, Active learning versus cramming in senior high school science, Spaced repetition and exam performance, Cramming in science education in Ghana, and WASSCE study strategies for biology, chemistry, physics. Snowball sampling was used by examining references from selected studies to identify further relevant research.

3.4. Data Extraction Process

Once important studies were identified, a systematic data extraction process was followed to ensure consistency.

3.4.1. Extraction For

A standardized data extraction form was developed to capture important information from each study. Important data was including Author, year, location, sample size, and study design. Description of the cramming or alternative learning strategies was employed. WASSCE performance, long-term retention, understanding of scientific concepts, and any reported student well-being outcomes were employed.

4.0 Results and Discussion

4.1. Effect of Cramming on WASSCE Performance

The meta-analysis indicates that cramming has a moderate positive effect on immediate exam performance, particularly in biology and chemistry, where factual recall is important. Studies conducted by Adusei (2019) and Antwi and Amoah (2015) revealed effect sizes indicating that students who crammed scored higher on fact-based questions. Cramming may be less effective for subjects like physics that require problem-solving and conceptual understanding. The effect size for cramming in physics was smaller, as found in studies such as Nyavor and Boakye (2016). The results show that cramming helps students focus on high-yield topics, improving performance in frequently tested sections of the WASSCE. However, this benefit is short-lived, as cramming typically exchange deeper understanding for immediate recall.

4.2. Effect of Cramming on Long-Term Retention and Understanding

The results indicate that cramming leads to quick forgetting of scientific concepts after the WASSCE. Studies conducted by Adusei (2019) and Owusu and Mensah (2020) report small effect sizes for long-term retention among students who solely relied on cramming. This is because cramming overloads memory in the short term, leading to poor consolidation of information.

Also, the results indicates that cramming leads to shallow learning, where students memorize facts but fail to develop a deep understanding of scientific principles. Studies such as Asare and Nti (2014) report lower scores on post-exam assessments that require the application of concepts, especially in subjects such as physics and chemistry. This indicates that cramming fails to support the development of higher-order thinking and conceptual mastery.

4.3. Comparing cramming with Alternative Learning Strategies

The meta-analysis show that spaced repetition has a large effect size on both WASSCE performance and long-term retention of scientific concepts. Studies corresponding to Nyavor and Boakye (2016) revealed that students who employed spaced repetition retained information for longer periods and performed better in science subjects.

The results strongly indicates that active learning techniques, such as self-testing and group discussions, are considerably more effective than cramming in fostering deep understanding. For instance, Asare and Nti (2014) studies indicates that students who practiced active learning strategies performed better on problem-solving tasks in biology and chemistry. Also, Concept mapping were also indicated a moderate positive effect size, as reported by Boakye and Nyavor (2016), especially for subjects such as biology, where the relationship between concepts is important for understanding.

Studies using retrieval practice was reported large effect sizes for both short-term exam performance and long-term retention. Students who regularly tested themselves will show improved recall and application of scientific concepts. The results supported findings conducted by Adusei (2019) that self-testing leads to better retention than cramming, with retrieval practice indicating clear benefits for WASSCE preparation.

The meta-analysis also reveal that interleaved practice and project-based learning lead to better problem-solving abilities and application of knowledge in physics and chemistry. These strategies help students integrate and apply concepts across disciplines, as seen in studies by Nyavor and Boakye (2016). The effect sizes for these strategies will likely be larger than those for cramming, especially in contexts where cross-disciplinary thinking is required.

5.0 Conclusion and Recommendations for Educators and Policymakers

5.1 Conclusion

The finding from this meta-analysis indicates that cramming is a short-term solution with limited benefits for WASSCE performance in science subjects, predominantly in biology and chemistry, where factual retrieval is focused. While cramming may lead to temporary improvements in exam scores or grades, its effectiveness is largely confined to lower-order cognitive tasks, such as memorization and recall of facts, formulas, and definitions. However, it fails to support long-term retention and deeper understanding of scientific concepts, which are important for success in more complex subjects like physics and for students’ future academic and professional endeavors.

The meta-analysis further discloses that alternative learning strategies such as spaced repetition, active learning, retrieval practice, and concept mapping are significantly more effective than cramming for both short-term exam preparation and long-term mastery of science concepts. These strategies promote critical thinking, problem-solving, and conceptual understanding, which are essential not only for excelling in the WASSCE but also for success in higher education and beyond.

Important takeaways from the analysis include;

1. Cramming offers limited long-term value, leading to rapid forgetting and shallow learning, particularly in subjects that require conceptual depth and application, such as chemistry and physics.

2. Spaced repetition and retrieval practice are proven to be highly effective strategies, enhancing both WASSCE performance and long-term retention by spacing out learning sessions and reinforcing memory through active recall.

3. Active learning methods, including self-testing, peer discussions, and problem-solving, are superior to cramming for developing higher-order thinking skills, which are critical for applying scientific knowledge to novel situations.

4. Concept mapping and interleaving provide students with a structured way to organize and integrate information, improving their ability to retain and apply complex scientific concepts across different contexts.

5.2 Recommendations for Educators, students and Policymakers

Based on the findings, educators, policymakers, and students should be encouraged to;

1. Reduce reliance on cramming for WASSCE preparation and rather promote the use of evidence-based learning strategies that enhance long-term retention and deep understanding.

2. Implement active learning techniques and retrieval-based study methods in school curricula to improve students' conceptual mastery and problem-solving abilities.

3. Encourage the use of spaced repetition and regular self-assessment to prepare students more effectively for both WASSCE and future academic pursuits, particularly in science-related fields.

4. Provide training for teachers to help them integrate these strategies into their instruction, ensuring students receive consistent support in adopting effective study habits.

5. Policymakers should also consider revising the WASSCE science curriculum to promote more conceptual understanding rather than rote memorization, helping students prepare more effectively for higher education and professional fields.

REFERENCES

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• Owusu, P., & Mensah, F. (2020). Exam stress and coping strategies: Understanding the psychological effects of WASSCE preparation among high school students in Ghana. West African Journal of Education, 30(1), 50-61.

• Tandoh, R., & Osei, E. (2016). The mental health impact of exam-related stress among senior high school students in Ghana. Journal of Adolescent Health, 14(2), 123-133.