Evil Emerges 

Against incredible odds, an unprepared nation became involved in two wars thousands of miles apart. Our enemies were militarily more powerful than us. Each showed little regard for the human rights of many and even less respect for America's ability to fight back. Their mission was clear: they wanted complete social, economic, and political domination and planned to purge what they considered the undesirables from the face of the earth. And they quickly did so in places like China and Eastern Europe. Critics felt that America would be doomed to disaster. Only miracles could save us.

Pre- Pearl Harbor America

Before the attack at Pearl Harbor, the American military was not considered a powerhouse. Regarding world conflicts, the United States had remained neutral since the end of World War 1 and had not invested in modernizing its war machines. U.S.Navy vessels were relics from World War 1, and our army was only ranked 19th in the world based on strength and size. Even the tiny nation of Portugal had a more powerful army. More importantly, the enemies of freedom, both Germany and Japan, held a low opinion of America's military might and its ability or desire to build one.

Hitler and Germany

Adolph Hitler, in particular, had not bothered to educate himself on American industrialization or our tenacity to fight back. A fanatical racist, he saw America as a divided nation, full of individuals he loathed - Jewish-Americans, African-Americans, Hispanic-Americans, basically the non-white race. A divided country, Hitler felt, would not be willing to fight a war on two fronts.

Japan

The military regime of Japan was so confident that the surprise attack at Pearl Harbor would be so devastating that the U.S. would lift the embargoes on Japan, especially the oil embargo. Japan had invaded China with the ultimate goal of conquering Asia. The December 7, 1941, attack was horrendous. The high loss of American lives, 2,403 and 1,178 wounded, enraged the nation but also solidified support for immediate action.

The Japanese attack, however, was flawed.

Pearl Harbor Attack

Fortunately, all aircraft carriers had already left the Harbor, and the remaining fleet was anchored in shallow water. Because of the shallow water, many ships could be raised, salvaged, repaired, and returned to service. The Japanese neglected to destroy the base's tremendous oil and gas fields, which later became paramount in rebuilding. Although the attack was horrendous, it did not cripple the Navy's fleet as Japan had hoped. It would be war.  Underestimating America's resolve would become the chief downfall of both the German and the Japanese empires.

Tripartite Treaty and the Challenges Faced by Americans

Because of the Tripartite treaty, which Japan was part of, the U.S. was now at war with Japan, Germany, and Italy. Adding to the national crisis, Roosevelt had pushed through the Lend-Lease federal program a year prior, which put American factories at work building military equipment for the Allies. That pre-war commitment to others included building at least 50,000 airplanes per year. This was in addition to our own nation's military needs. The challenge was daunting.

With our own involvement in the wars and the need for millions of soldiers and sailors, American industries would quickly be depleted of workers. The task seemed nearly impossible, and only a herculean effort from all Americans would work.

"No matter how long it may take us to overcome this premeditated invasion, the American people in their righteous might will win through to absolute victory." President Franklin Roosevelt addressed the nation by radio on December 8, 1941.

Men Leaving for Military Service Create a Huge Shortage of Workers

Adding to the challenge, the options to fill the industrial positions needed to be expanded. Teenagers and older people were previously left out of the workplace. Still, the main pull-in numbers came from minorities and women who were now being considered for front-line shipyard workers, aircraft factories, and more.

"There need not be any more debate about including women in the business life of this nation."  Franklin D. Roosevelt, 10/18/1942.

Women Workers

At first, women weren't always welcomed into the workplace. They received less pay, generally half the compensation of a male counterpart.  Many men looked down on them and felt they weren't up to handling a "man's job." They often faced sexual harassment, long hours, and dangerous working conditions. Unions were concerned that the quality of products would be less if women or minorities made them.

One male worker, expressing a standard male view, said,

"A married woman's first duty is to her home and family. . . . And you can't have a job and keep a home as well" (Archibald, 1947, 34).

War Production Miracles 

Many single and married women, juggling families and countless other responsibilities, were quickly able to adapt to the 24/7  industrial work.  There was clearly a "we can do it" attitude that spread throughout the workforce. In time, war production was breaking records. Within a few years, airplane plants doubled the 50,000-per-year FDR committed to the Allies. Over one million women found jobs in shipyards, many working as riveters; quickly, the government launched an advertisement based on "Rosie the Riveter." Liberty ships, which transported troops across the ocean, were being produced in four days or less, and battleships and destroyers production was expedited to months instead of years. Airplanes were mass-produced even faster; B-24s rolled off the assembly line in four days, and bombers were completed in less than two days. One newspaper quoted a government official saying

                                              "the unthinkable is happening and America is producing ships and planes far faster than enemies ever imagined."

This was all good news for the war cause.

Government Intervention and High Industrial Accidents 

The federal government was highly involved in securing existing plants and turned auto and truck factories into assembly lines for airplanes, tanks, jeeps, and more. The government ignored the high work fatalities and injuries while emphasizing production and patriotism. Between 1941 and 1943, over 35,000 industrial workers were killed on job sites, and another 210,000 were seriously injured. These numbers were considerably higher than pre-war datea.

According to historian Andrew E. Kersten "defense industry jobs could have been more dangerous  than serving on the front lines."

This information was not released to the public until after the war."

Working women on the home front faced unique challenges. Those with children struggled with child care and caring for a household independently. Many had to learn to manage their finances for the first time and cope with a tight budget further strained by war rationing and the call to buy war bonds.

Quotes from women workers:

Kathleen Endres, a worker at the Goodyear rubber plant, said:  "I have found the work at GoodYear Tire and Rubber very interesting and I enjoy doing it. Of course, it just a duration job and like hundreds of other war wives, I'm looking forward to the day when I can again settle down to being a housewife."

Ruth Dietrick mother of three said, "when victory comes to our country I shall consider my work done and then devote my time to my family."

Scripted by the Government 

The quotes seemed scripted and may have been framed by the government to express a positive attitude that the workplace transition was a success and, more importantly, that the status quo was not disturbed.  The "We Can Do It" posters were widely shared throughout all media. The Buffalo Evening News, however, reported a different opinion. A recent survey of women workers found that over half planned to continue working after the war. The finding was alarming to some economists who suggested that there would be a glut of workers that unemployment would be a concern, and, worse, the nation may fall into another depression.

Racism

Institutionalized racism, however, was still a part of most industries' hiring process. One New York paper reported that the plants in Detriot, which employed 30,000 women, were only using 75 Negroes. This was despite the hundreds of African Americans who had completed work training and thousands more clamoring for jobs.

In time, and because of the tremendous need for workers, industrialists changed their hiring practices and were willing to hire black men and women workers. Over one million African Americans migrated from the South to the North and East in search of these high-paying jobs. They worked at munition factories, aircraft plants, and more. However, their new white co-workers resented the encroachment on what they perceived as "their jobs."

Scathing racist remarks

For example, one foreman at Moore Dry Dock expressed his scathing opinion about black women workers by saying, "Women are no good at all in the shipyards."

He elaborated: "They're lazy and shiftless, and they have to make all the men around them useless, too. I've finally got rid of the women in my department, and I don't want any of them. It's too bad every skirt in Moore Dry Dock can't be given her quit slip right now." (Archibald, 1947, 31).

Industrialized Inequality 

Blacks were not allowed to join unions or apprenticeship programs, such as the one at the Newport News Shipbuilding Company.  Their new white co-workers resented the change in the status of Jim Crow. Black migrants encountered prejudice, discrimination, and sometimes violence. Despite the hardships presented by blatant racism, African Americans made immeasurable contributions to the growth of war production. By 1944, Black workers made up 25% of foundry workers and 12% of workers in the shipbuilding and steel industries.

Production Success but Something Else was Changing 

Over six million women joined the workforce by the war's end; by 1945, they made up almost 37 percent, up from only 27 percent in 1940. Most found themselves pressured to give up their jobs to the male soldiers returning home at the war's end. But something had permanently shifted: the war had empowered women to seek new opportunities and fight for equal pay in the decades to come.

Minorities 

The same could be said about African Americans and other minorities. During this time, over 1.2 million African Americans served in the military, and an additional 1 million worked in war factories. During the war, over 600,000 were "Black Rosies." The tenants of the Civil Rights Movement were rooting themselves not just in the contributions of women but also minorities during World War 2, both abroad and at home.

Summary

The success of the war mobilization was indeed a herculean effort by millions of people. Racist and bigoted beliefs continued to exist, but had to be temporarily set aside. The "all-out war" demanded nothing less than an "all-out effort" from all Americans. The "We Can Do It" campaign was highly successful and particularly lifted the status of women in the workplace. The final victory for the Allies was not only peace and democracy but also opened the floodgates to equality for women and minorities for the future.

Additional Resources:

New York Times - 1941- 1945

Richmond Times Dispatch - 1941 - 1944

Buffalo Evening News 1943

Wartime Shipyard, Katherine Archibald , 1947