Confusion and Anxiety: Lincoln and the Days Before the Civil War

As Abraham Lincoln prepared for office in 1861, the United States teetered on the edge of chaos. Sentiments regarding slavery were sharp and divided and not always aligned with geography. Tensions and anxiety grew like a burning fire, and the conversation moved from slavery to states’ rights. 

The ‘antagonists’, primarily the pro-slavery advocates, spun the evolved new argument to paint a picture that secession was a 'good thing,' and even if it wasn't, slavery was supported by the Constitution and by God. On the other hand, the 'protagonists', the staunch abolitionists, believed that slavery was a horrible evil and needed to be destroyed. They also thought that the Union needed to be preserved and by all means. These two opposing groups and their beliefs were at the heart of the tensions leading up to the Civil War. 

In the quiet of the nation's capital, a buzz was also undermining the rise of Abraham Lincoln. The capital itself was home to over 7000 enslaved people. The city encompassed a strong following of Confederate sympathizers—and the tensions of the election laid bare the raw and emotional feelings of many. In some respects, the city was hostile to the enormous changes underway.

The Swirl of Various Personalities That Generated Conflict

Mary Chestnut

Individuals like Mary Chestnut, a Southern diarist, demonstrated remarkable courage in her critical views on slavery. Despite being part of the Southern elite, she described slavery as a 'monstrous system' and condemned its inherent injustices. Her outspokenness, especially on the sexual exploitation of enslaved women, was a beacon of hope amid societal hypocrisy, inspiring others to speak out against the prevailing norms. 

Reverend Thornton Stringfellow

Some Southerner pastors, however,  preached weekly to their congregations that slavery was a "good and right thing" and that it was "ordained by God."  Reverend Thornton Stringfellow of Virginia said to his congregations, "It was the law of God that established slavery."

Edmund Ruffin

Edmund Ruffin was in complete agreement with Stringfellow's opinion.  A wealthy planter, agricultural author, and state’s rights activist, Ruffin found himself somewhat of a hero in South Carolina because of his pro-slavery writings. Before the 1860 election, he had argued for years for the South to secede from the Union. Known for his long, white hair, which added to his striking and somewhat eccentric appearance, it became a visual signature of his fiery personality and radical views. Ruffin was disappointed that his home state of Virginia was the last to leave the Union.

William Lloyd Garrison 

For years, abolitionist propaganda flowed from the North and strengthened the voices against slavery while inciting Southern hatred.  Some Virginians felt that slave propaganda ignited the deadly four-day insurrection in 1831, led by Nat Turner, an enslaved person. Turner's group of both free and enslaved people murdered 55 white men, women, and children. 

Many Southerners blamed William Lloyd Garrison and other Yankee journalists for the rise of abolitionism. His newspaper, The Liberator, was one of many influential abolitionist papers circulated in the South.  

Garrison was a modest and unassuming man. With his clean-shaven face and close-cropped hair, he stood out in an age of beards. However, his demeanor was anything but ordinary—his fiery speeches and unwavering commitment to abolition made him a towering figure in the fight against slavery. 

Sojourner Truth and Frederick Douglass

There were others like Sojourner Truth and Frederick Douglass. They were both formerly enslaved people and now black activists on a mission to expose the horrors of slavery.  Their words and actions, born out of their own experiences, were powerful examples of the wrongness of the horrible institution. It also expressed how oppressive the evil institution was and how change would only occur if extreme measures occurred. 

"I have borne thirteen children and seen most all sold off to slavery, and when I cried out with my mother's grief, none but Jesus heard me!" Her words were not just about slavery but also about justice, equality, and the strength of women. She believed in the power of truth and often said,  "Truth is powerful, and it prevails."

*Frederick Douglass’ words were not just a call to action, but a declaration of urgency. He understood the gravity of the situation, saying, 'It is not light that we need, but fire; it is not the gentle shower, but thunder. We need the storm, the whirlwind, and the earthquake.' His words, filled with determination, stirred the emotions of Americans and underscored the need for immediate change, making the audience feel the pressing need for reform. 

Abraham Lincoln

Lincoln had campaigned on maintaining slavery in the current slave states but not allowing further development elsewhere. The 1860 election, a pivotal moment in American history, triggered the start of several southern states leaving the Union. This election, which saw Lincoln's victory, was a major catalyst for the secession of southern states. In December 1860, South Carolina became the first state to secede, marking a significant turning point in the lead-up to the Civil War. 

Lincoln, however, made clear his thinking about secession in his Inaugural address in March 1861, saying:

"We cannot separate; the Union … will constitutionally defend and maintain itself." 

The period leading up to the Civil War was a time of profound confusion and anxiety. During this moment, individuals—each with unique motivations and personalities—played pivotal roles in shaping the nation's destiny. The chorus of opinions, ranging from fervent pro-slavery advocates to staunch abolitionists, became louder, and the deepening divide in the country was one of darkness and peril.  

Pre-War Violence - In Congress

Many politicians were hesitant to speak out against slavery, fearing a backlash from their constituents or even bodily harm.  In 1856, after delivering a fiery anti-slavery speech, Senator Charles Sumner of Massachusetts was brutally attacked in the Senate chamber by Representative Preston Brooks of South Carolina. Brooks used a cane to beat Sumner, leaving him severely injured. This incident shocked the nation and highlighted the deep divisions over slavery.

The Fort Sumter Crisis: Duty and Doubt

As South Carolina announced its exit from the Union, Major Robert Anderson found himself in the eye of the storm. A loyal yet conflicted Union officer, Anderson commanded Fort Sumter, Charleston, South Carolina. His decisions and actions during the Fort Sumter Crisis would profoundly impact the course of the Civil War, carrying with them a heavy emotional burden.  

He was deeply committed to his duty as a Union soldier, and Anderson wrestled with feelings of isolation and uncertainty. Washington gave him few specific orders, leaving him to navigate the delicate balance between defense and provocation. His calm demeanor belied the inner turmoil of a man tasked with holding the line in a rapidly unraveling nation.

Leadership Challenges: A Nation Adrift

President James Buchanan's indecision during the secession crisis left a legacy of confusion. Known for his reserved manner, Buchanan avoided taking any decisive action. The outgoing president's reluctance to address the growing threat of secession reflected his desire to maintain peace but ultimately left the Union vulnerable. This created a void of leadership that Abraham Lincoln would inherit.

Anxious Trip to Washington

Abraham Lincoln was a thoughtful and pragmatic leader who approached the presidency with resolve and trepidation. Known for his wit and self-deprecating humor, he used his intellect to navigate the political minefield, even as doubts about his capabilities loomed large. His journey to Washington was marked by genuine fear. 

With his election, there were many Southerners who made it known they would rather kill Lincoln than suffer under his leadership. To begin his presidency, he traveled by train to the nation's capital without his family.  He cautiously changed trains and traveled in secrecy, trying to avoid any violence along the way. During the trip, Lincoln became aware of an assassination conspiracy against him and disguised his appearance. The trip took several days, with Lincoln stopping at small towns for the night. This trip embodied the anxiety of a nation clearly on the brink.

Cabinet Challenges

Lincoln's Cabinet included strong personalities and political rivals who seriously doubted his abilities. Many publicly and privately expressed that Lincoln was woefully unprepared to tackle the nation's challenges. 

William Seward, Lincoln's Secretary of State, initially believed he could steer Lincoln's presidency, even drafting a controversial memo suggesting he take control of the administration's policies early on. Lincoln ignored Seward's efforts and firmly yet diplomatically asserted his leadership.

The Secession of South Carolina - Beginning of the Confederacy

South Carolina's secession, led by fiery and resolute politicians like James Hammond, set the stage for a domino effect. Hammond, known for his controversial views and sharp tongue, spoke confidently about the South's power, coining the phrase "King Cotton" as a rallying cry for Southern independence. His brazen attitude contrasted sharply with Major Anderson's quieter and more contemplative demeanor.

On the ground, the fierce Southern secessionist Edmund Ruffin channeled his unyielding passion into action. Ruffin, deeply invested in the Confederacy's cause, reportedly fired one of the first shots at Fort Sumter—a symbolic act that epitomized his fervor. His zeal was matched only by his uncompromising belief in his side's righteousness.

William Lloyd Garrison reacted sharply to South Carolina's secession from the Union.  While many opponents of slavery viewed the act as unconstitutional, Garrison and other staunch abolitionists welcomed it. They saw the secession as an opportunity to highlight the moral and political divide over slavery. 

Mary Todd Lincoln 

A cast of characters brought support and challenge within Lincoln's inner circle. Mary Todd Lincoln, his wife, was a profoundly complex figure. Accused of being a Confederate sympathizer, Mary Todd Lincoln had Southern roots and family connections; her outspoken nature and emotional struggles added layers of tension to their marriage. Mary had a reputation for being opinionated and sharp-tongued, which made her unpopular among the capital's social circles. 

Her feuds with staff and political wives further isolated her. The celebrated London Times correspondent William Russell was particularly unflattering towards Mrs. Lincoln. He found her to be "plain" and "unpleasant."

While deeply devoted to her, Lincoln feared her strong opinions might lead to public embarrassment. Despite their challenges, Mary's unwavering belief in her husband's potential was a source of strength.  

Chaos and Confusion at Fort Sumter - The War Begins

By April 1861, tensions between the Union and South Carolina's Confederacy reached a boiling point. Confederate forces surrounded the fort with heavy cannon and offensive weapons.  Major Anderson kept his small army busy maintaining the fort and preparing for an assault without explicit orders from Washington.

The situation was fraught with uncertainty. President Abraham Lincoln faced a dilemma: resupply the fort, risk war, or withdraw and appear weak. Ultimately, Lincoln decided to send supplies, but before they could arrive, Confederate forces opened fire on April 12, 1861. The bombardment lasted 34 hours, leading to the Union's surrender of the fort.

This event symbolized the deep divisions within the nation and set the stage for the bloody conflict that would follow. The confusion and chaos were emblematic of the more considerable turmoil engulfing the United States.

The Flag and Its Legacy

When Major Anderson, surrendered Fort Sumter in April 1861, he carried the fort's flag—a symbol of Union’s resilience.

Four years later, the same flag was raised to mark the Union's victory. It was a fitting tribute that Brigadier General Robert Sullivan, a man of quiet dignity, was assigned to preside over the ceremony.

The flag-raising at Fort Sumter on April 14, 1865, symbolized the Union's triumph after years of bitter conflict. Sullivan had envisioned a solemn religious service. Still, the occasion became a grand celebration, reflecting the contrasting emotions of triumph and reflection. 

That evening, Robert Sullivan raised a toast to Abraham Lincoln. Sadly, at approximately the exact moment as the toast, President Lincoln was gravely wounded by an assassin's bullet at Ford's Theatre—a tragic irony marking the end of the Civil War and the beginning of national mourning.

This juxtaposition of victory and loss is a stark reminder of the horrendous sacrifices made during the war. Nearly seven hundred thousand Americans had been killed during the 4-year war. It's a reminder of the lives lost, the families torn apart, and the communities devastated. It's a reminder of the profound impact of war on a nation. It's also a reminder of Lincoln's profound influence on preserving the Union, a legacy that should be remembered and respected.

Conclusion

The days leading up to the Civil War were as much about individuals as they were about ideologies, from Anderson's quiet resolve at Fort Sumter to the fiery rhetoric of Southern secessionists like Edmund Ruffin. The elite Southerners faced financial ruin as well as the end of a way of life. Ruffin, rather than accept defeat and be under "Yankee rule," ended his own life on his farm in Virginia.

Mary Chestnut and General Chestnut returned to their South Carolina plantation, finding it burned. In frustration, she wrote, "Did we lose by imbecility or because one man could not fight ten for more than four years?" 

For many, their actions, choices, and struggles reveal the human side of a nation on the precipice of war—a poignant reminder of the confusion and anxiety that defined this tumultuous period. It is a reminder that war is not just about nations but people.