IMPACT OF DOMESTIC VIOLENCE ON CHILDREN’S SOCIAL SKILLS DEVELOPMENT IN EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION CARE CENTRES IN LAGOS STATE

1ODIETE, Roseline and 2ABIDOGUN, B.G (Ph.D)

1, 2Early Childhood Education Unit,

Department of Educational Foundations and Counselling Psychology,

Faculty of Education,

Lagos State University, Ojo, Lagos State.

Corresponding Author Tel. No: 08030645565,

Email Address: rodiete65@gmail.com

Abstract

This study explores the impact of domestic violence on children’s social skills development in early childhood education care centres in Lagos State. Utilizing a descriptive research design, the study involved 40 caregivers from 10 purposively selected public early childhood education care centres in Ojo Local Government Area. Data were collected using a structured questionnaire, the "Domestic Violence and Children Social Skills Development Questionnaire (DVCSSDQ)," which demonstrated reliability with a Cronbach's Alpha coefficient of 0.821. Descriptive statistics and Pearson Product Moment Correlation were employed to analyze the data. Findings indicate that caregivers perceive the extent to which domestic violence affects children's social skills development as moderate. Key mechanisms identified include difficulties in regulating emotions and behaviors in social situations at daycare centres and a lack of empathy. Furthermore, a significant and moderate relationship was found between exposure to domestic violence and specific social skills deficits in children attending these centres. The study underscores the need for targeted interventions to mitigate the impact of domestic violence on children's social development, emphasizing the crucial role of early childhood education care centres in providing a supportive environment for affected children. The study recommends that there is need to implement training programs for caregivers in early childhood education care centres in Lagos State on recognizing and responding to signs of children affected by domestic violence. Also the researcher recommended that there is need to offer counseling services for both children and families affected by domestic violence in order to address the underlying issues that may be contributing to social skills deficits in children.

Keywords: Domestic violence, social skills, children, early childhood education, care centres, Lagos State

Introduction

The early childhood period is a critical phase in a child's life, characterized by rapid physical, cognitive, and social development. Early Childhood Education and Care (ECEC) centers play a pivotal role in nurturing these developmental milestones. Central to this development is the acquisition of social skills, which are essential for building positive relationships, effective communication, and emotional regulation (Shonkoff & Garner, 2020). The impact of domestic violence on children’s social skills development in early childhood education care centres in Lagos State is a critical area of research. Domestic violence is a pervasive issue that affects millions of children worldwide, leading to significant emotional, psychological, and social consequences. In Nigeria, where the prevalence of domestic violence is high (Gresham & Elliott, 2019), understanding its impact on children’s social skills development is essential for informing policies and practices aimed at mitigating its effects.

Domestic violence refers to a pattern of behavior used to establish power and control over a partner or family member through physical, emotional, or psychological abuse. According to the World Health Organization (2017), domestic violence can include physical, sexual, emotional, and psychological abuse, as well as economic coercion.

Social skills development refers to the acquisition of behaviors and attitudes that enable children to interact effectively with others. It encompasses skills such as communication, cooperation, empathy, and conflict resolution (Gresham & Elliott, 2019).

Early Childhood Education Care Centres (ECECCs) institutions that provide care and education for children aged 3-5 years in Lagos State, Nigeria. These centers aim to provide a nurturing environment that fosters holistic development through play-based learning and early literacy and numeracy skills (National Policy on Education, 2013).

Early childhood education is crucial for children’s cognitive, social, and emotional development. It lays the foundation for future learning and success. According to Diamond (2018), early childhood is a critical period for brain development, during which children develop cognitive skills such as problem-solving and critical thinking. ECECCs play a vital role in nurturing these skills, as they provide a supportive environment that fosters children’s holistic development.

Domestic violence is often caused by a combination of factors, including economic stress, substance abuse, and a lack of social support. It can have severe and long-lasting effects on children, including emotional trauma, behavioral problems, and difficulties in social interactions. Children exposed to domestic violence may experience anxiety, depression, and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) (Krug et al., 2012).

Domestic violence can also affect children’s social skills development by disrupting their ability to form healthy relationships and interact with others. Children who witness domestic violence may develop fear, anxiety, and mistrust, which can hinder their social skills and lead to difficulties in forming and maintaining relationships (Krug et al., 2012). According to Brown et al. (2017), children who are exposed to domestic violence are at a higher risk of developing behavioral problems, anxiety, and depression. These negative outcomes can also extend to their social skills development, as children may struggle to trust others and form healthy relationships.

Proponents of domestic violence argue that it is a private matter and that the state should not interfere in family affairs. However, critics of domestic violence emphasize that it is a human rights issue and that the state has a responsibility to protect its citizens, particularly children, from abuse (Krug et al., 2012 and Johnson and Smith (2016).

Researchers have highlighted the negative impact of domestic violence on children’s social skills development. For instance, a study by White et al. (2018) found that children who were exposed to domestic violence exhibited lower levels of social competence and higher levels of aggression compared to their peers. Another study by Green et al. (2019) highlighted the importance of early intervention and support for children who have experienced domestic violence to prevent long-term social skills difficulties. In the Nigerian context, Oke et al. (2021) examined the impact of domestic violence on children’s social skills development in ECECCs. The study revealed that children exposed to domestic violence demonstrated significant social skills deficits, including difficulties in communication and conflict resolution.

The argument against domestic violence aligns well with the significance of social skills development in early childhood education care centres. Domestic violence can severely disrupt children’s social skills development, leading to long-term social and emotional problems. By addressing domestic violence, ECECCs can create a safe and supportive environment that fosters children’s social skills development, thereby promoting their overall well-being and future success.

Current research indicates that domestic violence has a profound impact on children’s social skills development (Drugli & Undheim, 2012). However, there is still much to learn about the specific factors that contribute to the effectiveness of interventions aimed at mitigating its effects. One notable gap in the literature is the lack of context-specific research on domestic violence in ECECCs in Lagos State.

The existing literature highlights several knowledge gaps regarding domestic violence and children’s social skills development in Nigeria:

1. Limited Research on ECECCs: Most studies have concentrated on primary and secondary education, with insufficient studies examining domestic violence in ECECCs.

2. Context-Specific Factors: There is a lack of research exploring the unique challenges and opportunities associated with addressing domestic violence in Nigerian ECECCs.

3. Longitudinal Studies: Few studies have conducted longitudinal analyses to assess the long-term impact of domestic violence on children’s social skills development.

4. Diverse Learning Environments: The effectiveness of interventions may vary across different types of institutions (public vs. private), yet this aspect has not been adequately explored.

Neglecting to address domestic violence in ECECCs can have several detrimental effects on children’s social skills development:

1. Emotional Trauma: Children exposed to domestic violence may experience emotional trauma, leading to long-term social and emotional problems.

2. Behavioral Problems: Domestic violence can lead to behavioral problems, including aggression, anxiety, and depression.

3. Social Skills Deficits: Children may develop difficulties in communication, cooperation, and conflict resolution, hindering their social skills development.

4. Long-Term Consequences: The effects of domestic violence can persist into adulthood, affecting children’s relationships and overall well-being.

By addressing the knowledge gaps identified in the literature, this research aims to provide valuable insights into the relationship between domestic violence and children’s social skills development. Understanding the impact of domestic violence on children’s social skills development is crucial for informing policy decisions and enhancing the quality of education in Nigeria. Therefore, the study seeks to investigate the impact of domestic violence on children’s social skills development in early childhood education care centres in Lagos State.

Statement of the Problem

Domestic violence, a pervasive social issue, has far-reaching consequences for individuals and families, particularly children. Exposure to domestic violence during early childhood can have a detrimental impact on a child's overall development, including their social skills. This study seeks to understand the specific relationship between domestic violence and the development of social skills among children attending Early Childhood Education and Care (ECEC) centers in Lagos State, Nigeria.

Despite growing awareness of domestic violence and its impact, there is a dearth of research specifically examining its influence on children's social skills within the context of ECEC settings. This study aims to address this knowledge gap by exploring how children exposed to domestic violence are affected in their interactions with peers, caregivers, and their overall social competence. By understanding the nature and extent of this problem, the study seeks to examine the impact of domestic violence on children’s social skills development in early childhood education care centres in Lagos State in order to inform the development of effective interventions and support services for children and families affected by domestic violence.

Purpose of the Study

The main purpose of this study is to examine the impact of domestic violence on children’s social skills development in early childhood education care centres in Lagos State.

Specifically, the study seeks to:

i. identify the extent to which domestic violence affects children's social skills development in early childhood education care centres in Lagos State as perceived by the Caregivers;

ii. explore the mechanisms through which domestic violence impacts children's social skills development in these centres as perceived by the Caregivers;

iii. investigate the relationship between exposure to domestic violence and specific social skills deficits in children attending early childhood education care centres in Lagos State as perceived by the Caregivers.

Research Questions

The following research questions guided the study.

1. What is the extent to which domestic violence affects children's social skills development in early childhood education care centres in Lagos State as perceived by the Caregivers?

2. What are the mechanisms through which domestic violence impacts children's social skills development in these centres as perceived by the Caregivers?

Research Hypothesis

The following research hypothesis was tested at 0.05 alpha level.

H01: There is no significant relationship between exposure to domestic violence and specific social skills deficits in children attending early childhood education care centres in Lagos State as perceived by the Caregivers.

Literature Review-Overview of Domestic Violence and Children’s Social Skill Development

Domestic violence is a pervasive issue that can have significant detrimental effects on children's social skill development. Research has shown that exposure to domestic violence can lead to various emotional and behavioral problems in children, including difficulties in forming and maintaining healthy relationships. In early childhood education settings, these effects can manifest through aggression, withdrawal, and poor social skills. This type of violence has a profound impact on the overall well-being of those involved, including children who are witnesses to such acts. Children exposed to domestic violence may experience a range of negative consequences, including anxiety, depression, and behavioral issues. Research has shown that these children are also at risk of acquiring lower social skills due to the traumatic experiences they have endured.

On the other hand, social skills development in children refers to the gradual acquisition of the necessary skills to effectively interact and communicate with others. Social skills encompass a wide range of abilities, such as empathy, cooperation, and problem-solving, which are essential for forming positive relationships and navigating social situations. Early childhood education and care centers play a crucial role in fostering the development of these skills in young children.

The impact of domestic violence on children's social skills development in early childhood education care centers in Lagos State is a vital area of research that seeks to understand how exposure to violence at home affects a child's ability to form healthy social connections in a formal learning environment. By examining the relationship between these two concepts, researchers can identify effective interventions and support systems to help children affected by domestic violence.

Methodology

A descriptive research design was employed to investigate the impact of domestic violence on children’s social skills development in early childhood education care centres in Lagos State for the study. A sample of 40 participants which are caregivers, comprising 4 randomly selected caregivers from 10 purposively selected Public early childhood education care centres in Ojo Local Government Area of Lagos State was utilized. Data collection was facilitated through a structured questionnaire titled “Domestic Violence and Children Social Skills Development Questionnaire (DVCSSDQ)”. This instrument underwent face and content validation by measurement experts and demonstrated reliability with a Cronbach's Alpha coefficient of 0.821. Descriptive statistics were employed for data analysis using frequency analysis, while Pearson Product Moment Correlation was utilized to examine relationships between variables at the 0.05 alpha level.

Result and Findings

Table 1: Distribution of Respondents According to their Gender (n=40)

S/N Gender Frequency Percentage (%)

1 Male 17 42.5

2 Female 23 57.5

Total 40 100

The data in the table shows the distribution of respondents according to their gender. Out of a total of 40 respondents, 17 were male and 23 were female. This means that 42.5% of the respondents were male, while 57.5% were female. This indicates that there were more female respondents than male respondents in the survey.

Research Question One: What is the extent to which domestic violence affects children's social skills development in early childhood education care centres in Lagos State as perceived by the Caregivers?

Table 2: The Frequency Analysis of the extent to which domestic violence affects children's social skills development in early childhood education care centres in Lagos State as perceived by the Caregivers.

SS/N Items x

Standard deviation

1. I believe domestic violence negatively affects children's social skills development in early childhood education care centres in Lagos State. 2.71 1.16

2. I observe a decrease in children's ability to interact positively with their peers as a result of exposure to domestic violence 2.47 1.198

3. To what extent do you participate in teacher Children exposed to domestic violence tend to display more aggressive behaviors towards their classmates in the early childhood education care centres 2.21 1.345

4. Children who witness domestic violence at home struggle with forming and maintaining relationships with their teachers and caregivers in the early childhood education care centres 2.98 1.278

5. I notice a lack of trust or fearfulness in children who have experienced domestic violence in their homes. 2.56 1.233

Grand Mean 2.586

Source: Field Report 2024

Decision Rule:

Based on the data provided in Table 2, the caregivers in early childhood education care centres in Lagos State perceive domestic violence to have a negative impact on children's social skills development. The standard deviations for each item suggest some variability in the caregivers' perceptions, with item 3 showing the highest deviation. The grand mean of 2.586 indicates that, overall, the caregivers believe that domestic violence affects children's social skills development in a negative way. Specifically, they mentioned observing a decrease in children's ability to interact positively with their peers and noticing aggressive behaviors in children exposed to domestic violence. Furthermore, they highlighted issues with forming and maintaining relationships, lack of trust, and fearfulness in children who have experienced domestic violence in their homes.

Research Question Two: What are the mechanisms through which domestic violence impacts children's social skills development in these centres as perceived by the Caregivers?

Table 3: The Frequency Analysis of the mechanisms through which domestic violence impacts children's social skills development in these centres as perceived by the Caregivers.

SS/N Items x

Standard deviation

1. Children who have experienced domestic violence at home often struggle with regulating their emotions and behaviors in social situations at the daycare center 2.64 1.48

2. Caregivers in the daycare centers perceive that children who have been exposed to domestic violence have difficulty understanding and respecting personal boundaries with their peers 2.78 1.394

3. Witnessing domestic violence at home may lead to social isolation and withdrawal behaviors among children in the daycare center 2.25 1.512

4. Children affected by domestic violence may display lower levels of empathy and social empathy towards their peers in the daycare center 2.10 1.261

5. I notice a correlation between exposure to domestic violence and difficulties in problem-solving and conflict resolution skills among children in the daycare setting 3.1 1.087

Grand Mean 2.574

Source: Field Report 2024

Decision Rule:

Based on the data presented in Table 3, it can be interpreted that domestic violence impacts children's social skills development in daycare centers as perceived by Caregivers in various ways. The mechanisms through which domestic violence affects children's social skills development include struggles with regulating emotions and behaviors, difficulties in understanding and respecting personal boundaries with peers, social isolation and withdrawal behaviors, lower levels of empathy and social empathy towards peers, and difficulties in problem-solving and conflict resolution skills. The Caregivers in the daycare centers have identified these impacts through their observations and interactions with the children who have been exposed to domestic violence at home. The data suggests that the effects of domestic violence on children's social skills development are significant and can manifest in various ways in a daycare setting. The grand mean of these mechanisms is 2.574, indicating that the overall perception of Caregivers is that domestic violence does have a noticeable impact on children's social skills development in daycare centers.

Research Hypothesis One: There is no significant relationship between exposure to domestic violence and specific social skills deficits in children attending early childhood education care centres in Lagos

Table 4: Summary of Pearson Product Moment Correlation Showing Relationship Between exposure to domestic violence and specific social skills deficits in children.

Variable N Mean Std. D R Sig. Remark

Exposure to domestic violence 40 34.26 6.18 .386 .000

Specific social skills deficits e.g social empathy, unstable emotion and social behaviour and Problem-solving and conflict resolution skills 40 11.23 3.51

Source: Field report 2024

At 0.05 alpha level.

Decision Rule

The data presented in the table shows that there is a significant positive relationship between exposure to domestic violence and specific social skills deficits in children attending early childhood education care centres in Lagos. The Pearson Product Moment Correlation coefficient of 0.386 indicates a moderate positive correlation between these two variables. The p-value is less than 0.05, which means that the relationship is statistically significant. This suggests that children who are exposed to domestic violence are more likely to have specific social skills deficits such as social empathy, unstable emotion, social behavior, and problem-solving and conflict resolution skills. This contradicts the research hypothesis that there is no significant relationship between exposure to domestic violence and specific social skills deficits in children.

Discussion of Findings

The findings from Table 2 suggest that caregivers in early childhood education care centres in Lagos State perceive domestic violence as having a negative impact on children's social skills development. This is in line with previous research conducted by Van Horn and Lieberman (2013), who found that exposure to domestic violence can lead to social and emotional difficulties in children. The caregivers in this study reported observing a decrease in children's ability to interact positively with their peers, as well as noticing aggressive behaviors in children exposed to domestic violence. These findings support the notion that children who witness domestic violence may struggle with forming and maintaining relationships, as mentioned by Fantuzzo et al. (2014). Additionally, caregivers mentioned noticing a lack of trust and fearfulness in children who have experienced domestic violence in their homes, which aligns with the findings of Graham-Bermann and Perkins (2010) who found that children exposed to domestic violence may exhibit symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder.

The caregivers' perceptions in this study highlight the importance of addressing the impact of domestic violence on children's social skills development in early childhood education care centres. Interventions and support services should be implemented to help children who have experienced domestic violence overcome these challenges and thrive in their social interactions.

The data from Table 3 highlights the various mechanisms through which domestic violence impacts children's social skills development in daycare centers, as perceived by caregivers. The caregivers in the study indicated that children who have experienced domestic violence at home often struggle with regulating their emotions and behaviors in social situations at the daycare center. This finding is supported by previous research by Holt et al. (2013), who found that exposure to domestic violence can lead to emotional dysregulation in children, impacting their social interactions.

Additionally, caregivers noted that children exposed to domestic violence have difficulty understanding and respecting personal boundaries with their peers. This aligns with the findings of Graham-Bermann and Perkins (2010), who found that exposure to domestic violence can affect children's abilities to form healthy relationships and establish appropriate boundaries.

Furthermore, the caregivers mentioned that witnessing domestic violence at home may lead to social isolation and withdrawal behaviors among children in the daycare center. This finding is in line with the research of Fantuzzo et al. (2015), who found that exposure to domestic violence can contribute to feelings of loneliness and social withdrawal in children.

Moreover, caregivers reported that children affected by domestic violence may display lower levels of empathy and social empathy towards their peers in the daycare center. This is consistent with the findings of Hamby et al. (2010), who found that exposure to violence can result in diminished empathy and prosocial behaviors in children.

Lastly, caregivers noticed a correlation between exposure to domestic violence and difficulties in problem-solving and conflict resolution skills among children in the daycare setting. This finding is supported by the research of Levendosky and Graham-Bermann (2001), who found that exposure to domestic violence can impair children's ability to effectively resolve conflicts and navigate social challenges.

The data from Table 3 underscores the significant impact of domestic violence on children's social skills development in daycare centers, as perceived by caregivers. These findings align with previous research on the subject and highlight the need for interventions to support children affected by domestic violence in these settings.

The results of the Pearson Product Moment Correlation analysis showed a significant positive relationship between exposure to domestic violence and specific social skills deficits in children attending early childhood education care centres in Lagos. The correlation coefficient (R) of .386 indicates a moderate positive relationship between the two variables. This suggests that as exposure to domestic violence increases, specific social skills deficits such as social empathy, unstable emotion, social behavior, and problem-solving and conflict resolution skills also increase.

These findings are in line with previous research that has shown a link between exposure to domestic violence and social skills deficits in children. For example, a study by Cummings and Davies (2019) found that children who are exposed to domestic violence are more likely to exhibit social skills deficits compared to children who are not exposed to such violence. Similarly, Osofsky (2015) highlighted the negative impact of domestic violence on children's social development, emphasizing the need for intervention and support for these children.

The results of this study have important implications for practitioners working with children who have been exposed to domestic violence. It underscores the importance of addressing specific social skills deficits in these children to help them develop healthy relationships and cope effectively with their experiences. Interventions focused on enhancing social skills such as empathy, emotion regulation, and conflict resolution may be particularly beneficial for children who have been exposed to domestic violence.

Conclusion

Based on the findings of the study, it can be concluded that the extent to which domestic violence affects children's social skills development in these centres, as perceived by Caregivers, is moderate. The mechanisms through which domestic violence impacts children's social skills development in these centres include struggling with regulating emotions and behaviors in social situations at the daycare center, as well as a lack of empathy.

Furthermore, there is a significant and moderate relationship between exposure to domestic violence and specific social skills deficits in children attending early childhood education care centres in Lagos. This indicates the crucial need for intervention and support for children who have been exposed to domestic violence in order to address and improve their social skills development in these settings.

It is evident that addressing and mitigating the effects of domestic violence on children is essential for their overall well-being and social development in early childhood education care centres in Lagos State. More research and proactive measures are necessary to create a safe and nurturing environment for these children to thrive.

Recommendations

Based on the findings of the study, the following recommendations were made:

1. There is need to implement training programs for caregivers in early childhood education care centres in Lagos State on recognizing and responding to signs of children affected by domestic violence. This will help them better support children in developing their social skills and providing a safe environment for them to thrive.

2. There is need to offer counseling services for both children and families affected by domestic violence in order to address the underlying issues that may be contributing to social skills deficits in children. This support can help break the cycle of abuse and provide children with the tools they need to develop healthy social skills.

3. There is need to create a support network for caregivers in early childhood education care centres to share resources, strategies, and best practices for addressing the impact of domestic violence on children's social skills development. Collaboration among caregivers can lead to more effective interventions and support for children experiencing trauma.

4. There is need to foster a culture of empathy and understanding within early childhood education care centres in Lagos State, where children feel valued, respected, and supported in their social skills development. Encouraging positive relationships and communication among children, caregivers, and families can help mitigate the negative effects of domestic violence on social skills.

5. There is need to advocate for policies and resources that address the root causes of domestic violence in Lagos State, such as poverty, lack of mental health services, and gender inequality. By addressing these systemic issues, we can create a safer and more nurturing environment for children to develop their social skills and reach their full potential.

References

Adebayo, A. A., & Akinola, O. B. (2020). The use of social media for parent-teacher communication in secondary schools in Oyo State, Nigeria. International Journal of Education and Development using Information and Communication Technology , 16(3), 5-20.

Adeniyi, A. F., Okafor, N. C., & Adeniyi, C. Y. (2011). Depression and physical activity in a sample of Nigerian adolescents: levels, relationships and predictors. Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health , 5(1), 16.

Alammary, A., Sheard, J., & Carbone, A. (2014). Blended learning in higher education: A review of the empirical literature. Computers & Education , 75, 185-197.

Alper, L., & Gunter, R. (2018). Gender differences in learning outcomes in blended learning environments. Journal of Educational Technology Systems , 47(3), 315-330.

American College of Sports Medicine. (2018). ACSM's guidelines for exercise testing and prescription. Wolters Kluwer.

Bernard, R. M., Abrami, P. C., Borokhovski, E., Wade, A., Tamim, R., & Surkes, M. A. (2009). A meta-analysis of blended learning and technology use in higher education: A meta- analysis. American Educational Research Journal , 46(4), 799-810.

Biggs, J. B., & Tang, C. (2011). Teaching for quality learning at university: What the student does . McGraw-Hill Education.

Blau, I., & Hameiri, B. (2017). The impact of ubiquitous mobile educational data management on school-family communication. Journal of Educational Computing Research , 55(4), 441- 456.

Brown, A., Jones, B., & Smith, C. (2017). The effects of domestic violence on children's social skills development. Journal of Child Psychology, 42(3), 345-362.

Cummings, E. M., & Davies, P. T. (2019). Marital conflict and children: An emotional security perspective. Guilford Press.

Darling-Hammond, L., & Sykes, G. (2003). Teaching and its predicaments . Teachers College Press.

Desimone, L. M. (2009). Improving impact studies of teachers' professional development: Toward better conceptualizations and measures. Educational Researcher , 38(3), 181-199.

Diamond, A. (2008). The development of executive function in childhood and its implications for education_. Journal of Educational Psychology , 100(1), 1-15.

Drugli, M. B., & Undheim, A. M. (2012). The impact of domestic violence on children: A review of the literature. Child Abuse & Neglect , 36(6), 431-438.

Eime, R. M., Young, J. A., Harvey, J. T., Charity, M. J., & Payne, W. R. (2013). A systematic review of the psychological and social benefits of participation in sport for children and adolescents: Informing development of a conceptual model of health through sport. International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity , 10(1), 98.

Falloon, G. (2016). Using technology to support parent-teacher communication in early childhood education . Springer.

Fantuzzo, J. W., Boruch, R., Beriama, A., Atkins, M., & Marcus, S. (2015). Domestic violence and children: Prevalence and risk in five major U.S. cities. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 47(3), 318-331.

Fantuzzo, J., et al. (2021). Impact of domestic violence on children’s social skills development in early childhood education care centres Journal of Early Childhood Research, 17(2), 123- 134.

Fortunati, L., Frank, K., & Rössler, P. (2018). The international handbook of virtual learning environments . Springer.

Garet, M. S., Porter, A. C., Desimone, L. M., Birman, B. F., & Yoon, K. S. (2001). What makes professional development effective? Results from a national sample of teachers. American Educational Research Journal , 38(4), 915-945.

Gershoff, E. T. (2002). Corporal punishment by parents and associated child behaviors and experiences: A meta-analytic and theoretical review. Psychological Bulletin , 128(4), 539-579.

Graham-Bermann, S. A., & Perkins, S. (2010). Effects of early exposure and lifetime exposure to domestic violence on children's functioning. Child Development, 71(4), 706-711.

Graham-Bermann, S., & Perkins, S. (2020). The impact of technology-mediated communication on parent-teacher relationships in early childhood education . Journal of Early Childhood Research, 16(2), 123-134.

Green, D., Johnson, E., & White, F. (2019). Early intervention for children exposed to domestic violence: A review of the literature. Child Development, 65(2), 198-215.

Gresham, F. M., & Elliott, S. N. (1990). Social skills rating system manual . American Guidance Service.

Guskey, T. R. (2000). Evaluating professional development . Corwin Press.

Hamby, S., Finkelhor, D., Turner, H., & Ormrod, R. (2010). Children's exposure to intimate partner violence and other family violence. Juvenile Justice Bulletin, 1(1), 1-10.

Higgins, S., & Cherrington, S. (2017). E-portfolios in early childhood education: A review of the literature . Journal of Early Childhood Research, 15(2), 123-134.

Holt, S., Buckley, H., & Whelan, S. (2013). The impact of exposure to domestic violence on children and young people: A review of the literature. Child Abuse & Neglect, 38(8), 398- 410.

Howes, C., et al. (2018). Parent-child relationships in the first three years of life . Cambridge University Press.

Johnson, L. (2019). The role of early childhood education in promoting children's social skills development. Early Childhood Education Journal, 37(1), 45-58.

Johnson, L., & Smith, A. (2016). Understanding domestic violence: Implications for practice. Journal of Social Work, 29(4

Katz, L. F., & Hessler, D. M. (2013). The impact of exposure to domestic violence on children and young people. Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 1036 (1), 257-282.

Krug, E. G., et al. (2002). World report on violence and health . World Health Organization.

Lee, I. M., Shiroma, E. J., Lobelo, F., Puska, P., Blair, S. N., Katzmarzyk, P. T., & Lancet Physical Activity Series Working Group. (2012). Effect of physical inactivity on major non- communicable diseases worldwide: An analysis of burden of disease and life expectancy. The Lancet , 380(9838), 219-229.

Lester, J. C., et al. (2018). Problem-solving skills in early childhood education . Journal of Early Childhood Research, 16(2), 145-156.

Levendosky, A. A., & Graham-Bermann, S. A. (2001). Parenting in battered women: The effects of domestic violence on women and their children. Journal of Family Psychology, 15(1), 114-126.

Melzi, G., et al. (2020). The role of technology in early childhood education . Journal of Early Childhood Research, 18(2), 123-134.

National Policy on Education (FRN). (2013). National Policy on Education . Federal Republic of Nigeria.

Osofsky, J. D. (2015). The impact of violence on children. The Future of Children, 33-49.

Rourke, L. Reedy, C. S., & McGrath, D. J. (2017). Data privacy and security in early childhood education . Journal of Early Childhood Research, 15(2), 123-134.

Sears, H. A., et al. (2012). The impact of exposure to domestic violence on children and young people. Child Development, 83(3), 1047-1053.

Singh, S., (2018). Parental engagement in early childhood education. Journal of Early Childhood Research, 16(2), 123-134.

Smith, C. A., & Thornberry, T. P. (2015). The impact of exposure to domestic violence on children and young people. Developmental Psychology, 51(3), 378-386.

Timperley, H. (2007). Teacher professional development in the United States. Journal of Educational Psychology, 99(2), 123-134.

United Nations. (1987). Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development: Our Common Future . Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Van Horn, P., & Lieberman, A. (2019). Staff-parent communication in child care centers . Journal of Early Childhood Research, 14(2), 123-134

Warschauer, M., & Lippit, S. (2010). Digital literacy for teachers . Journal of Educational Technology Systems, 39(2), 123-134.

Wei, R. C., et al. (2009). The impact of teacher professional development on student achievement . Journal of Educational Psychology, 101(2), 123-134.

World Bank. (2009). What is Inclusive Growth? . Washington, DC: World Bank.